Human disturbance, habitat characteristics and social environment generate sex-specific responses in vigilance of Mediterranean mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon × Ovis sp.)

Abstract

Vigilance is an important part of decision making process in ungulates related to risk effects. Thus, understanding the mechanisms shaping vigilance behavior provides an insight on factors influencing fitness variation between individuals. We compared several factors (human disturbance, habitat, social and individual characteristics) influencing males’ and females’ vigilance behavior in a population of Mediterranean mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon × Ovis sp) inhabiting the massif of Caroux-Espinouse (France) using a scan sampling protocol. For both males and females, yearlings were less vigilant than adults, as they faced a crucial period of high food requirements and lacked foraging experience. Both sexes were less vigilant in the protected area (with no hunting and restricted tourism) compared to disturbed areas (with hunting and tourism). Nonetheless, during the hunting period, males were as vigilant in and out of the protected area. This is explained by the fact that the rutting period is the same as the hunting season, and the rut increases males’ vigilance in a context of social dominance. Females with lamb were more vigilant than non-reproductive females. Females without lamb were not vigilant at all in groups with lambs, but in groups with no lambs, these females were highly vigilant. Finally, habitat characteristics, such as visibility for females (vigilance decreased in a habitat with a good visibility) and quality of feeding sites for males (vigilance decreased in high quality feeding sites), also contributed to explain variations in the level of vigilance. Thus our multifactorial study allows to support the importance of favorable habitat (open areas and high food quality) and the existence of protected areas for the management and conservation of wild sheep.